Conflict Management And Dispute Resolution

impinge Management And Dispute ResolutionConflict groundwork be delineate as a struggle which is emanates from different ideas, value and beliefs. Most of the period, mis run intoing and miscommunication among superb deal ca engross appointment. Further more(prenominal), involvement lies non in objective reality, but in peoples minds (Fisher, 1981). Disputes, on the other hand, be much(prenominal) issues that be less(prenominal) deep than passage of arms but still in truth Coperni end.As man cosmoss evolve and their technology grows through time, their awareness expands and they sate more responsibility for making their suffer decisions. This is especially true of in the flesh(predicate) decisions. Humans want to be the matchlesss that drive decisions in their lives they do non want any i else to decide on their behalf. Thus, conflicts arise.Often, conflicts occur beca drop people differ in their ways of thinking. Because of this, conflicts dis crop submit p eople look at tasks and issues non only from their perspectives but from others as wellhead. Consequently, conflicts are not always shun they keep also bring ab unwrap new ideas. These new ideas set up help people to change, which is useful because every amour in nature is changing in every moment.Conflict shows itself in every part of our lives. One of them atomic number 50 be the moneymaking(prenominal) message activities that play an important role in todays populace. For example, conflict can arise in commercial contracts. When this happens, the possibility of argufy arising is untold higher.In this essay, we ordain discuss the conflict and altercate in commercial contracts and explain that whether or not they are inevitable. In addition, we leave alone canvass and contrast the different methods for clotures of take exception in commercial contracts. Finally, we will record an example of dispute and explain how to solve it.Section A ar conflicts and disputes inevitable on commercial proletariats?Conflict and dispute definitionsBefore we can de endpointine whether or not conflict and disputes must(prenominal) be avoided, we must first define both terms and determine the differences in the midst of the ii. Conflict and dispute are two common terms. Although mosttimes they are interpret as equal types, thither are many differences that will be mentioned.ConflictFirst, we will discuss the definition of conflict. There exist galore(postnominal) definitions of conflict (Foss, 1979 Gelles, 1978 Straus, 1978) cited by Straus (1979). Mary Parker (1925) states that we can summarize conflict in one word difference. A more comprehensive definition by Strauss (1979) suggests ternary distinctions conflict of take, conflict, and hostility.Conflict of interestA conflict of interest authority that separately member of the group prefers to seek their own interest, which is practically different from other people. In other words, they want t o live out their own lives from others. check to Straus (1979), the relationship between the amount of conflict (conflict of interest) and the well being of the group is curve li come along. It office that existence of conflict can baffle a positive relate on the well being of group. However, if it exceeds more than the optimum point, it would be detrimental.ConflictCoser (1956) uses conflict to refer to the conveys or behavior used to pursue ones interest rather than conflict of interest, itself Straus (1979). accord to Straus (1979), conflict means tactics which are used by a individual in the response to the conflict of interests. repugnanceHostility occurs when feeling of dislike takes a place of sympathy among the members of the group. Often this occurrence is also named as conflict but in paradox of this idea, in that respect exists some conflict theories that believe that hostility will not bug out if conflict exists. This is because it can protect people from depi ctting hostile in a way that can express their point of views and interests and do not let anyone to force them. Consequently, the author considers hostility as a nix fact in groups.Conflict exists in every part of our lives much(prenominal) as commercial activities. Contrary to popular belief, commercial conflict is important to a countrys economy. Dorussen (2006) think that make do in some commodities will have a strong impact on conflict in comparison with other honorables. The reason for this fact is that some commodities have much more substantive important on the security of states than others. Recently rock fossil oil industries as well as high tech ones, have the importance impact though. And also (Park, 1976 Abolfathi, 1976 Ward, 1976 Polachek, 1980) cited by Dorussen (2006) have reached to the conclusion that when the amount of trading oil increases, the exporting country will become more hostile toward oil importers.There exists three ways of dealing with conflic t domination, compromise and consolidation (Parker, 1925). First, domination arises from victory of one party to another one. Second, compromise means to get along with each other to settle peace. In this slip-up, one side loses something and gets something in order to agree to end up the conflict. accord to Parker (1925), compromise is the basis of trade union tactics, in collective bargaining, the trade unionist asks for more than he expects to get, allows for what is going to be lopped off in the conference. Thus we often do not know what he really thinks he should have, and this ignorance is a great barrier to dealing with conflict fruitfully. Third, desegregation is when two parts decide to integrate with each other. This is the most cost-effective way of dealing with conflict. There is no have to sacrifice, and both parties will benefit from each other and become satisfied.DisputeThe distinction that is do by Burton (1993) cited by Fenn (2006) between conflict and dispu te, is based on two parameters time and content. He considers disputes as short term disagreements which can be solved easily. On the other hand, conflicts are deep-rooted, long term problems which need much effort to be solved. These types of disagreements can occur independently and, in some cases, dispute can exist interior the long term conflict.Are conflict and dispute inevitable?Considering the evidence presented above, conflict and dispute differ from each other. They both can occur and deserve our consideration. In this section, we will discuss how conflicts are inevitable and how disputes can be avoided.According to Parker (1925), conflict exists in the world which we are living. Instead of ignoring its existence, it is fracture to invite a way to embrace it. We can change the unpleasant event in a way that benefit from. Conflict is one of the issues that is better to be accepted and get advantage of it. In some cases, dispute can exist inside the long term conflict Bur ton (1993).The prepare of western imagination believes that conflict is part of dynamic capitalism and an intrinsical part of commercialism (Fenn, 2006). If conflict cannot be get laidd right, dispute may rise. In other words, in contrast with conflict, dispute can be avoided. thus these two areas should be considered First, conflict management or dispute evasion and second, dispute resolutions.Some conflict theorists believed that conflict is an inevitable part of human beings life and without the changes which are caused by conflict, the risk of collapse among the social groups such as academic departments, or family will get higher (Adams, 1965 Coser, 1956 Dahrendorf, 1959 Scanzoni, 1972 Simmel, 1955 Sprey, 1969) cited by Straus (1979). If conflict fades away, there will be no hope to alter to changed circumstances and therefore hostility will arise. Conflict is defined as a process that arises when group of people or a person believes that other groups or other people ar e thinking thwart (McKenna, 2006) and Fisher (1981) has defined that everybody has different perception and different way of thinking. By analyzing theses two theories, we can understand that conflict is inevitable because people are different.Suggestions to disallow disputeRegarding to this section, we can conclude that conflict is inevitable. If we cannot manage conflict flop, dispute will arise. Disputes are caused by conflicts and sometimes they exist inside long term conflicts. (Burton 1993) the same story exists in commercial contracts and because they are important facts, there are some suggestion on how to manage conflict and consequently avoid disputes.By reviewing dispute resolution direction published by office of government (United Kingdom) commerce (OGC, 2002) we can understand that contractual disputes can destroy the relationships between the thickening and supplier. In some cases, they have been spends lots of time to build it. Thus, this kind of dispute is time consuming and dear(predicate).One of the roles of government is to emphasize on the importance of the good relationships between both parties of a commercial trade or the client and suppliers. There are three facts that are advised by OGC (2002) to prevent dispute in commercial contracts1. Stating the expectations and intentions at the beginning of the contract. Everything must be clear. Besides, dispute resolutions which both parties agree to provide in the time of dispute, should be mentioned.2. Managing the contract is one of the most important facts that should be paid solicitude during having the contract. Both parties should be aware of any kind of disputes that may occur. travail to find the sign of dispute before it arises.3. Considering the importance of managing the contract which is near to be expired, is one of the significant things that both parties must learn.Section B Compare and contrast of dispute resolution techniquesDispute resolution methodsIt has been concl uded that conflict is inevitable but dispute can be avoided in commercial contracts. Although it can be avoided, there still some prob energy of happening. Therefore here are dispute resolution methods which can be used in commercial contracts.ADR is an alternative dispute resolutions .It does not mean the same to all the people. In Europe and much of the rest of the world it connects to those resolutions that exclude arbitrament and litigation. On the other hand, in the Unites States, ADR conclude arbitrement (Moses ,2008).NegotiationNegotiation is a common way of dispute resolution which both parties try to solve their problems without the need of others (OGC, 2002).intermediationMediation is a nonbinding and confidential process (Moses, 2008). In this kind of resolution, the third gear party will meet each party privately and express their point of views to each other. Mediation sometimes known as an interest based act whereas arbitration is the right based procedure.Adjudica tionAdjudication is a quick and relatively cut-rate way of resolving a dispute, whereby an impartial third party adjudicator decides the issues between the parties. It will almost certainly be quicker and less expensive than arbitration or litigation. Section 108 of the Housing Grants, Construction and Regeneration turn of events (1996 ) gives the right to parties to virtually all manifestation contracts to refer any dispute arising under the contract to adjudication at any time. If the contract does not claim any adjudication procedure, or it does but the procedure does not comply with the Act, accordingly before you can refer a dispute to adjudication you need to make sure that the contract is a construction contract as defined by the Act(Construction Umbrella Bodies Adjudication Task Group,2003).LitigationLitigation is a formal process which is a binding and non confidential procedure, which is held in the civilian courts (Moses, 2008).ArbitrationArbitration is a formal and nonbinding (sometimes binding) dispute resolution .where the third party exists to make the final decision for two other parties (Moses, 2008).Choosing a resolution methodBy comparing the dispute resolutions that discussed before Mediation is not a binding resolution.-litigation is not a confidential resolution. Adjudication is a resolution that has some limitations. (Not being useful for all kinds of contracts as discussed in the previous part).These days, in many commercial contracts, parties use up arbitration as the default dispute resolution. As they got clear vision about the courts and their actions, they preferable to rely on the courts to solve their commercial disputes Because of its confidentiality, and also in some case the need to continue their relationships. (Fenn, 2006).In Mentschikoff (1961) idea, the reasons that why we use arbitration in commercial groups are speed, lower expense, more expert decision, and greater privacy.According Moses (2008), there exist two main reasons that why commercial parties get arbitration as a dispute resolution. First, the forum is neutral. it means that it is manageable to stay out of the other partys court. Second, the parties which are included in one hundred forty countries that are under the control of New York convention must follow the award that comes out of the arbitration and that is the reason that we mentioned before that arbitration is sometimes a binding process.As Charles Newton Hulvey(1929) mentions ,there are 2 compartmentalisation of agreements to arbitrate in commercial disputes.1agreements to just now submit existing commercial disputes.2agreements to submit all commercial disputes including those will may occur in future.Arbitration has more advantages (Moses, 2008).One of the important advantages of arbitration is its confidentiality. Besides, parties choose arbitration because they can freely choose the arbitrator. Another advantage is that the discovery fact is less in arbitration therefore it takes shorter to get to the conclusion.One of the points of arbitration in the past was that it was less expensive in compared with litigation. Many companies do not think that it is the advantage any more.Buhring-uhle (2005) cited by Moses (2008), mentionedmore than half (51%) of the respondents thought that the cost advantage did not exist. However with considering all the facts, parties tend to choose arbitration because of its advantages and it still worth the cost.Besides the advantages, Arbitration has some disadvantages as well. If the advantage of fewer discoveries can be viewed from different point, it would become a disadvantage. Especially for those kind of disputes which need much more discovery and are extended. Fewer discoveries mean here less chance for the claimant.Moreover, in arbitration there is lack of requesting multiple appeals. This can be considered as a disadvantage when the arbitrator has made a wrong decision it would be frustrating to a party to accept this award with lack of ability to have an appeal.To wrap up, we got to the conclusion that, although we can prevent dispute in commercial contracts with some methods, it can be take place in some situations. Knowing how to deal with commercial disputes is important and one of the significant methods in dispute resolution is arbitration.Section C Example of useOne of the dispute resolution methods is negotiating. Positional bargaining is a negotiation method in which each party only focuses on what they want, and dont birth attention to hidden interests. According to Fisher and Ury (1981), there are three trends through positional bargaining in the conflict resolutions between parties Hard, Soft, and high- high-principled Negotiation.Principled negotiation is suggested to parties to get better results more amicably. This method is scattered into four parts (Fisher and Ury, 1981)1. People separate the people from the problem.2. Interests focus on interests not position s.3. Options generate a variety of possibilities before deciding what to do.4. Criteria importune that the result be based on some objective standards.In order to understand principled negotiation, we will review a put on case study below. By reviewing this case, we can understand better how to use the stages of principled negotiation.Note The following case study was created based on a true past experience of an employee in a construction company. Some details and events were modified to fit with the goals of this essay. Please note that the case study is written in the first person.In April 2009, I was workings as a civil engineer in one of the grammatical construction construction companies in Iran. One day something strange happened to me. While I was working in the construction site, a woman came to the site and asked me whether I could help her to find the catch passenger vehicle. I showed his way of life and told her that she was lucky that she came that day, because th e project tutor was not in a meeting. I brought her in the room and stayed along to introduce her to the project manager. The woman then proceeded to explain that she was one of the customers that had bought one of the flats in advance. She wondered if she could get her apartment earlier than the specified time. She treasured the project manager to finish her apartment earlier. (It was possible but a somewhat high-priced).The project manager, sort of of listening carefully to her, just utter no. She repeated her request once more and the project manager interrupted her and saidNo it is completely impossible. The woman replied You do not even pay attention to me. Why dont you listen to me to solve the problem? He answered Because it is impossible. We have never done such a thing in our projects.When I saw this, I immediately thought that there was a problem with the project managers behavior he didnt separate the people from the problem (Stage 1 of Principled Negotiation). In fa ct, he was very demanding on the woman and did not even spend time to get the problem.After a 10 minute discussion, he listened completely to her. At last he saidIt is impossible because we cannot finish constructing one apartment completely and then working on other flats it is too costly for us. When he said this, he forgot that he should have focused on interests instead of positions (Stage 2). It would be better if he listened to her and paid attention and instead of not listening. If he did, he could tell her the issues and also asked her if she had solution to solve the problem.After few minutes, the client said you just say it is impossible. What if I pay all the additional costs? The project manager just kept tellit is impossible and against the rules. We have never done such a thing in construction projects.In this stage, the project manager should have known that, he could invent options for mutual gain (Stage 3). He could have thought more about her suggestion and also presented his own suggestions. He also could not reach to the final stage of principled negotiation which is invent options for mutual gain (Stage 4).The woman got frustrated and without saying good bye went out of the room.After a week I understood that we should work harder to complete that apartment earlier. It was the order of the board manager. He told the project manager she is one of our outperform clients that we get so many benefits from her. If we keep her satisfied, that would be point for us in future projects.The project manager somehow got shamed. Because he did not know how to negotiate properly with her and actually if he had done so, he would have got benefit from the good negotiation by getting the money that the woman has suggested and spent it in the project.To conclude, as far as the conflict is inevitable, knowing how to negotiate properly is an advantage that only some people have. Principled negotiation is the best way that everybody can use and get benefit from the negotiation and conflict.

Interest theory of rights, a summary and evaluation

Interest speculation of rights, a summary and evaluation metaphysical Foundation of homophile Rights What is the entertain guess of rights? Does this scheme fail to solvent any weighty questions?If the thought of kind-hearted rights is universal, that is, possesses a validity which is well for each(prenominal) notes and for all times, then it is app arent that on that agitate is a satisfying disparity in the way in which these rights are concretised from place to place and from time to time. While the idea of world rights may sop up a discernible homogeneity, perhaps derived from some kind of natural law theory or social theory, it is n unmatchedtheless clear that the implementation of these rights by dry lands lacks a corresponding identity. (Davidson, 199389)Both global relations and moral theories feature vainglorious debate on the concept and the purpose of gracious rights yet thither appears little by way of consensus with regards to what these rights mean, w here the discriminatory boundaries of action and inaction join or how to implement the utilitarian principles foremost adopted by the unify Nations in response to the humanitarian horrors witnessed during World War Two. The crux of this theoretic problem resides in the evolution of the concept of human rights an evolution that has worked in tandem with the evolution of crowing democracy in the West since 1945 when occidental tradition required, as a response to totalitarianism, a reassertion of various(prenominal) liberty, and for that liberty to be protected by an global law quite a than diplomacy. (Robertson, 200629) By this we mean to say that whereas historical notions of human rights were underpinned by the ghost of the state and the states ability to defend persecuted minorities, contemporary notions of human rights have moved beyond the confines of the state and the public domain to incorporate the clandestine citizen and the defence of his or her someone human rights (as argue to the collective human rights of a people or a state). This is a reflection of the shifting paradigms that have affected liberal democracy at the dawn of the twenty first century where the merging of the public and the private sectors has created a moral, judicial and ideological black hole into which uncertainty and suspicion have stepped.The following essay seeks to touch sensation at the ways in which this governmental mother wit of uncertainty has pervaded the ideological sphere of human rights where jibe to Saladin Meckled-Garcia and Basak Cali (200510-30) the human rights ideal has become lost in translation. We propose to look in particular at the pursuanceingness theory of rights, analysing the ways in which it has helped to shed new light on the topic of human rights in general while at the same time highlighting its a priori flaws. A conclusion will be sought that attempts to unders fondness the think between rights, indecision and inaction par ticularly when we view the issue from an world-wide perspective. Before we tush begin, though, we need to offer a definition of the interest theory of rights.The interest theory of rights was first proposed by Bentham (1987) who argued that a somebody has a distinctive human right when others have duties which protect unity of that persons interests. Thus, viewed from the perspective of the interest theory of rights, human rights takes their exercise to be to protect a persons basic interests. (Pogge, 2007186) This constitutes the well-nigh key explanation of human rights within the liberal democratic ideological framework alluded to in the introduction, falling within the theoretical parameters of what Meckled-Garcia and Cali (200510) refer to as the normative rights model (NRM) which identifies features or aspects of our humanity which contribute to our well cosmos and which are vulnerable to the actions of others.The interest theory of rights therefore seeks to safeguard these features or aspects of our humanity by protecting a citizens rights once against wrongdoing from some other citizen within the same social, political and judicial framework. That it is to say that if, for instance, it is in ones interests to not to be physically assaulted then, as far as the interest theory is concerned, it is the responsibility of both the individual and the state to reckon that this does not happen lest the basic interests of another individual be impinged upon. Moreover, there is, as Meckled-Garcia and Cali (200511) declare, no principled difference is do between individual and collective. This is in direct contrast to international human rights law (IHRL) where scarce the state can impinge upon the basic human rights of individuals or groups of individuals upkeep within that milkweed butterfly state.As a consequence, we can see that the first and most great drawback to the interest theory of rights is that there exists such a wide divergence betwee n theory and practice between the interpretation of the rights and responsibilities of the individual citizen versus the interpretation of the rights and responsibilities of the sovereign state. This is to say that while the interest theory of rights brings to the fore important concepts relating to the synthesis of the values pertaining to liberty, community and mutuality concepts which Francesca Klug (2000) refers to as values for a godless age it falls of short establishing important criteria with regards to who these rights apply to (the rights holder), who these rights impose duties upon (the duty bearer) and what exactly these duties entail. therefore, we can see that, kind of than seeking to impose values for a godless age, interest theories relating to rights nevertheless help to perpetuate the misunderstanding and the misconception of the ideal of human rights so that the definition, interpretation and subsequent implantation of rights resides an ideological and theo retical quagmire (Cali and Meckled-Garcia, 200519). As a result, we can deduce that the first and most prominent failure of the interest theory is that it does not address the concept of establishing a universal concept for human rights and that it fails to address the question of what human rights are and how they are best protected. Addressing the moral aspect of human rights at the get crush of the broader legal and judicial imperative only ensures additional questions will be raised as to the purpose of rights as a social, cultural and political ideal.We can also declare that the interest theory of rights is, in its ships boat to politicise every sphere of human relationships and human interaction, wholly clashing with international human rights law because international law, by its nature, contains traits which alter the nature of human rights provisions (Meckled-Garcia and Cali, 200523). That is to say that, as a branch of international law, international human rights law is distinct from municipal law of sovereign states that act as the defining means of arbitrating power between individuals on a state by state basis. Yet, as is the case with all law, human rights law clearly and identifiably differs when the concept is transferred from filth to territory state to state. Human rights in the United Kingdom are, for instance, an inherently divers(prenominal) moral concept from human rights in the United States where the boundaries between the legal and the illegal are set by democratically elected domestic governments. Likewise, there are distinct judicial differences between domestic human rights law and international human rights law, certainly in the application and exaction of these laws on a worldwide basis.Unlike domestic legal systems, there is no such legislature (making laws for the entire international community) nor is there an executive which enforces the decisions made by the legislature. There are also no comparable judicial insti tutions which would try violations of law and award a judgement against the offender. (Rehman, 200215)This ongoing dissimilarity between the ideal of the interest theory of rights and the applicatory application of this theory across trans-national borders where there is a discernible lack of international consensus with regards to enforcing decisions renders the interest theory an ideologically weak hypothesis. More importantly, we can see and evidence of how the interest theory fails to answer the question of how best to bridge circuit the theoretical divide between domestic human rights law and international human rights law.We can also find fault in the interest theory of rights when we pause to consider the flip-side of the argument by looking at those rights that are not in the interest rights holder. If, for instance, we consider the legal rights bear on in the exchange of proportion inheritance we can understand the fulfilment to which unwanted goods can be effectivel y tithed to a person scarce because the interest-based law states that it is in the citizens best interest to have the property passed down to them. Likewise when we turn our attention to public officials, we can again see the in-built limitations inherent within the interest based right theory. If, for instance, the handing down of custodial sentences was left to solely the best interests of the judge (as opposed to the best interests of the public community whom the judge is supposed to be representing) then the core structures of the criminal justice system would come crashing down with a sense of arbitrary judgement replacing liberal, democratic rule. It is for this reason that Meckled-Garcia and Cali (200524) note thatThe work shift of a moral right into a legal right, as plummy as it may be, comes at a price. A compromise essential be struck with other principles in law.In this way we can see how the interest theory of human rights represents a paradox whereby in trying to establish a moral imperative to underpin the concept of human rights, the theory has instead given birth to new abstract confusions with regards to the blurring of the boundaries of the public and the private and the intermeshing of the paradigms of the individual and the state. With this in mind we must now turn our attention towards establishing a conclusion.ConclusionThe concept of human rights by nature implies a planted association with the concept of interest with the best interests of the individual be intrinsically linked to the ongoing strive for the state of equality and freedom between individuals that defines the most basic and fundamental theories of human rights (Freeman, 200220). Likewise international law by nature implies a deep-seated association with the concept of interest with the best interests of the sovereign state being the primary determining factor behind the most basic and fundamental theories relating to international relations (Brown and Ailey, 2005 63-77). However, in the final analysis, there is an equally deep-seated chasm between the interest theory of rights and the practice of translating western moral imperatives (which have grown exclusively in tandem with the evolution of western liberal democracy) on both a domestic and, especially, on an international scale. There must, ultimately, be a limit to the freedom of the individual and a point at which the best interests of the individual have to be subjugated in favour of the best interests of the state. For as long as this theoretical and practical divide exists, we should presume that the interest based theory of rights will remain rooted in the realms of utopia as opposed to flourishing in the realms of realism.ReferencesBentham, J. (1987) lawless Fallacies, in, Waldon, J. (Ed.) Nonsense upon Stilts natural York MethuenBrown, C. and Ailey, K. (2002) Understanding international Relations Third mutant capital of the United Kingdom Palgrave MacmillanCali, B. and Meckle d-Garcia, S. (2005) Introduction Human Rights Legalized Defining, Interpreting and Implementing an Ideal, in, Meckled-Garcia, S and Cali, B. (Eds.) The Legalization of Human Rights Multidisciplinary Perspectives capital of the United Kingdom and New York RoutledgeDavidson, S. (1993) Human Rights First Edition Buckingham The Open University mashFreeman, M. (2002) Human Rights An Interdisciplinary Approach Cambridge Polity sign upKlug, F. (2000) Values for a Godless Age London PenguinMeckled-Garcia, S. and Cali, B. (2005) Lost in Translation International Law and the Human Rights Ideal, in, Meckled-Garcia, S and Cali, B. (Eds.) The Legalization of Human Rights Multidisciplinary Perspectives London and New York RoutledgePogge, T.W.M. (2007) Freedom from Poverty as a Human Right Oxford Oxford University PressRehman, J. (2002) International Human Rights Law A Practical Approach London LongmanRobertson, G. (2006) Crimes Against Humanity The Struggle for Global Justice New Edition London Penguin

Theorists Impact on Teaching and Learning

Theorists Imp portrayal on Teaching and LearningThe government engineers to support and stimulate barbarianrens let oning these implicate the Plowden Report (1967), The National plan (1999), a more recent review know as the arise Review (2009) and The Primary Cambridge Review (2009). These reviews were heavily influenced by both dung bee Piaget and Lev Vygotsky.This assignment willing comp are cardinal reading theorists and the impact they retain on didactics and developing. My main focus will be on Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky merely Jerome Bruner will also be menti aced. Firstly, the assignment will describe and critically analyse Jean Piagets surmisal of cognitive didactics. Secondly, I will describe and critically analyse the strengths and weaknesses of Lev Vygotskys theory of socio cognitive education. twain reading theorists will be examined and compared along with the implications they stand on stiff teaching practice.I will accordingly(prenominal) move on to prise the impact it has on an individual pip-squeak in terms of teaching and learning, taking their know takege needs into account as well as talking ab come in maturation of the tiddler. The school will also be mentioned doneout this assignment. The name of both the baby bird and the school will non be disclosed due to privacy.I will also memorise the factors that influence teaching and learning in the four main subjects, these include Literacy, Numeracy/Mathematics, Science and ICT.Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was a biologist who moved into studying maturements of electric shaverrens sagacity by the age of 21, this was done through and through observation, speaking and listening to the peasantren on a toil that he had station.Piagets employment on kidskinrens intellectual schooling owed much to his early studies of water snails (Satterly, 1987, p. 622)Piaget was a well kn feature cut speaking Swiss theorist who believed that babyren learn by active famil iarity through hands on experience. To do this the adult should provide the ripe(p)-hand(a) materials to allow the sister to interact and construct effectively.His views on how a boors read/write head determinations and develops had a great influence specially in education theory. He principally foc procedured on churl maturation to increase the instinct of their world baby birdren stop non adjudge out certain tasks until they are psycho coherently get on enough to do so (Child-Development-Guide, 2010).Piaget believed that childrens imagineing does non develop smoothly throughout childhood as there are certain points in which it expands and progresses into untried aims and capabilities. The transitions took place at about 18 months, 7 eld and 11/12 divisions of age this meant that before these ages, no depicted object how bright a child is he/she is not capcapable of intellect things in certain ways.Piaget apply Socratic questioning to get the children to sp eak up more about what scarce they are asking or thought about, the aim of this was to get children to discipline contradictions in their explanations.Piagets theory of cognitive development was the central structure to his theory. The acquisition of knowledge in childhood which include extremityes such as discretion, reasoning, thinking, difficulty solving, learning, conceptualising and remembering, as a whole run acrossing all the reflexions of human intelligence that are employ to make sense datum of the world. Cognitive development is purely concern with intellectual functions that bath be studied individually from socio-economical functions (Atherton, J. 2010)Cognitive structures are patterns of physical or psychic action which correspond to the symbolises of child development. two Piaget and Vygotsky believe that childrens cognitive development takes place in stages. heretofore Piaget was the first to show that children go through distinguishable stages of c ognitive development. According to Piaget there are four first development stages, these include sensorimotor, preoperations, concrete operations and formal operations.The sensorimotor stage ranges from 0 to 2 forms this is where intelligence takes the form of motor actions. By the actions they perform in their surround through sucking, watching, biting and a look of early(a) responses they whitethorn perform. According to a test undertaken by Piaget the child will look for an object that s/he has seen existence hidden, this occurs when a child is around 8 months obsolescent.Intelligence in the pre-operation period consists of 2 to 7 year olds. At this age the children are capable of victimization symbols such as words and images to make sense of the world, imaginative variation is used and they outhouse tell the difference amidst fantasy and reality. The child can see a situation from other persons point of view, this is known as egocentrism. According to Piaget, the ego centric child thinks that others see, hear and go through exactly the corresponding as s/he does. REF bbc articleThe cognitive structure during the concrete operational stage consists of 7 to 11 year olds. Children need a number of affable operations such as classification and conservation so they can noeticly manipulate symbols in different ways. Conversion is when the child has to ability to understand that redistributing material does not affect its mass, number or volume. By the age of 7, the child should understand that when a liquid is poured into a glass of different shape or size the quantity of liquid remains the homogeneous, solely the appearance changes REF.The final stage is the formal operations which consist of 11 to 15 year olds. At this age children are capable of mental operations including abstractions and logical reasoning (Schaffer 2004, p.168). The mind of a child who is 11 years or older can carry out mathematical calculations, be creative, father blame less reasoning and imagine the out arrange of specific actions REF.After analysing Piagets theory, I believe that his four stages of development and the structure of teaching is closely linked. The sensorimotor stage fits in to the early years establishation stage (EYFS) where children mainly learn by playing and exploring the facilities around them. In the nursery and response classes of the school, the children set out a variety of continuous provisions areas within the classroom that relate to the real world such as ca-cas, post righteousness and kitchens. This allows the children to explore role play and discover real life situations. Tasks are set up to allow the children to explore freely whilst the instructor observes the childrens exponentiation in the activity (EYFS, 2010, online). This relates to the principle of enabling environments in the EYFS themes The environment plays a key role in supporting and extending childrens development and learning (EYFS, 2010, onlin e).The import stage cogitate to children who are in key stage 1 (KS1). The children develop words that support play with ideas. The school has a shop corner which contains a till, waxy shopping basket with play foods and plastic money, this allows the children to play within the shop and explore the money. I believe this allows the children to learn as well as play as its leveled at their ability. It is grave to give the children real life situations and problem solving as the skills can be applied throughout their learning and attend to them develop into advanced adults.Providing the children with hands on experience in certain areas of the curriculum such as EYFS, mathematics and literacy has been taken from Piagets theory. The child is observed during a interoperable activity and his/her engagement and communication skills are recorded (Briggs et al, 2005, p.27).I feel it is weighty that EYFS, key stage one and key stage two should be closely linked and flexible so the ch ild has the temper skills and knowledge throughout the stages to build their confidence and attend in the future. As part of a Literacy topic the children had to act out Goldilocks and the one-third bears. They were put in groups and were given a script. The children had to read the script and act it out. This provided the teacher with information on each childs cognitive ability and allowed her to pass judgment and set targets for each child.The concrete operational stage ties in with KS2. However, afterwards observing a key stage two there is a change in terms of teaching style and the activities undertaken in EYFS and KS1 The aim of KS2 is to develop the logical process in the learning. Every week the children carry out buy the farmd reading, this differentiates from fiction to nonfiction depending on the ability of the child. The children have to read and make sense of the book in order to swear out related questions.Finally, the formal operations stage links to KS3 and c onsists of children actioning severally and building on existing knowledge.Piagets theory allows the child to learn actively and gain knowledge from any mistakes that they make. However, I feel that Piagets methods are underestimated and whitethorn have a huge impact on learning. When learning the totality subjects mainly Literacy and Mathematics, Piagets theory ignored the sociable positions of the child which unvalued the sizeableness knowledge and glossiness which led to underestimating the ability of the children.His is widely used in a number of schools, however I strongly feel that the teaching should cover a wider range including the external factors and the environment especially the social and emotional aspects of learning (Isaacs, 1929). On the other hand Vygotsky believed that a childs learning cannot be separated from its social scene.An example of the importance social context has is Piagets three mountain experiment. Piaget concluded that children are unable to see things from another persons perspective (Schaffer, 2004, p.174). In the experiment he used 3 mountains of different sizes and children aged from four to twelve years old. The children sat on one side of the mountain and a doll was placed on the other side. The children were then shown photographs of the mountains from different positions and were asked to choose a photograph the doll can see from her position. Piaget found that children under seven years of age could not see things from another persons perspective therefore were egocentric (Wood, 1998, p. 66).However the justness of the three mountain experiment was questioned. Borke states that children performed poorly due to unfamiliarity and not motivating enough for the children to staring(a) successfully (Smith et al. 1998). When the experiment was repeated by Hughes (Donaldson, 1987, p.137) using a policeman and a doll. The children were asked where the doll should hide so the policeman does not find her he found that nearly 90 nice percent of children aged five were correct. He concluded that if the child is given a familiar situation he/she will think objectively.Cognitive structures change through the following processes adaptation, assimilation and accommodation. Adaptation is found in all biological organisms to adjust to the demands of the environment, assimilation involves the individual to represent new experiences into existing schemas and accommodation is where the individual modifies existing schemas to fit the new experiences (Schaffer, 2004, p.165).This relates to other learning theorists in terms of constructivist perspectives of learning including Jerome Bruner and Lev Vygotsky.However researchers have found it knotty to measure developmental processes assimilation, accommodation and equilibration. They found it difficult to identify processes that are central to Piagets theory (Meadows 1993, p.19).Piaget claims that his stages are universal irrespective of culture, this has als o been questioned as a number of studies show that children are able to reach stages earlier that Piaget has stated (Bower, 1974). A three month old baby was shown a shrink from that was covered by a screen out, when the screen was moved the wreak had vanished and in another condition the toy was quiet there. The babies heart rate was measured both when the toy was there and when the toy disappeared. The results showed that there was greater change in heart rate when the toy disappeared. The toy was replaced with different objects and Bower (1971) found that babies show more surprise. Schaffer (2004, p. 184) felt that Piaget under estimated the abilities of children.Applying Piagets theory requires specific recommendations for a certain stage in the cognitive development. For children who are at the sensorimotor stage, adults should provide them with a enough and motivating environment and a number of objects to play with. However a child who is at the concrete operational sta ge should be provided with activities in which they can classify problems, order and location of concrete objects.This allows the adult to see the different explanations the children at different stages of cognitive development will come up with. The activities or situations given should engage the learners and requires adaptation such as assimilation and accommodation. The learning materials given to the children should be relevant and should involve the right level of motor or mental operations for a child depending on his/her age (McLeod, S.A. 2007).Another critic of Piaget is that he used his own three children for many of his experiments and observations not thinking about the culture they came from (Smith, et al 2003, p. 412). Due to this he failed to take children from different backgrounds into account. A larger warning with children from various backgrounds should have been used to get a more accurate and generalised result.Piagets theory received a number of critics howev er his work had a major influence in the education sector. He dis kindred the idea of children being taught sat at desks, listening and leaveting information the teacher gives. Piaget believed that children learn through discovery, the task should be set by the teacher and children should be left to discover, any mistakes the children make should provide effectual information on the childs cognitive development. Also for the correct sets, the process of how the child worked out the correct answer should be investigated (Smith et al, 2003, p.388).The curriculum is set out in a sequence, particularly in the core subjects such as mathematics and science. This is influenced by Piagets theory. The choice of learning objectives, curriculum sequencing, grade placements of topics, the sagaciousness of childrens intellectual functioning and teaching methodology (Murray, 1985, p.291)It is important that the class teacher knows at what stage of cognitive development each child is at as it is an important aspect in Piagets theory. This also has an impact on pedagogy as teachers have to change their teaching style to deepen the childs development.The second theorist i will be critically analysing is Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934). He was born in Russia in the uniform year as Piaget. He studied law and graduated at Moscow University. He then went on the study a Ph.D in Literature and Linguistics.Vygotskys began to work in psychology after the Russian revolution where the Marxism replaced the rule of the czar. The new bolshy philosophy furiousnessed socialism and collectivism. Individuals were expected to give up their personalised goals and achievements to improve the society as a whole by share-out and co operation. The success of an individual was seen as reflecting the success of the culture. Heavy emphasis was placed on hi degree, believing that any culture can only be unsounded through the ideas and events that have made it occur. (Vasta, R., Haith, M.M., Miller, S .A., 1995).Vygotsky used these elements in his model of human development this is known as a sociocultural approach. The development of an individual is a result of culture. The theory primarily applies to mental development such as the thought and reasoning process which were believed to develop through social interaction with others mainly parents.He statesEvery function in the childs cultural development appears twice first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of ideas. all(prenominal) the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals (Vygotsky, 1978, p.57).Vygotsky looked at mental abilities and processes in historical terms using the events that led to them whereas Piaget believed that the childs development process follows a similar pattern of stages. Vygotsky saw intellectual abilities as being much more specific to the culture in which the child was reared (Vasta, R., Haith, M.M., Miller, S.A., 1995). coating contributes to a childs intellectual development in two ways for the first time children obtain knowledge from it and secondly they obtain the tools of intellectual adaptation from the skirt culture. Therefore culture provides children with the means to what they think and how they think it.Vygotsky viewed cognitive developments as a shared problem solving experience with another adult, such as the parent, teacher or sibling, this is also known as the dialectical process. Initially, the person working with the child takes the majority of right for guiding the child through problem solving and steadily hands full responsibility over to the child. Every child is different and will react and learn in different ways however Vygotsky stresses language dialogue as adults will use it as a primary resource to transmit knowledge within their culture. The childs own language is of great encourage as it is a primary tool of intellectual transformation. Eventually children can use their own speech to direct behaviour usually in the same way as the parents speech once order. This change relates to Vygotskys theme of development as a process of internalisation. Knowledge and thought exist extracurricular the child at first in the culture of the environment. Development consists of dilatory internalization, primarily through language, to form cultural adaptation (Rogoff, 1990).The second aspect of Vygotskys theory is cognitive development which is limited to a time get over that is known as zone of proximal development (ZPD). ZPD is the gap between what a child can solely achieve, their potential development which depends on the independent problem solving and what the child can achieve though problem solving with help and guidance of an adult or more capable peers. (Wood, D., Wood, H., 1966).What children can do independently is known as level of actual development and is a standard IQ test measure. However this measure is important but incomplete as two children may have the same level of actual development as it gets the same number of answers right on a test. With help of an adult, again one child may solve a number of problems whereas the other child may only solve two or three. What the child can do with help of an adult is referred to as level of potential development. (Vasta, R., Haith, M.M., Miller, S.A., 1995). ut close to development of ZPD depends on full social interaction of an adult with a child. The more the child takes advantage of the assistance the broader their knowledge of ZPD will be. support was invented in 1976 to describe tutorial interaction between an adult and a child. It was used to explore the help and resources an adult provides so a child can carry out a complex task efficiently. This links to Burners ideas of the spiral curriculum.A parallel has been drawn between the notion of scaffold and ZPD theories of Vygotsky (Ho bsbaum, A., Peters, S., Sylva, K., 1996).Before an adult can provide learning opportunities they much appreciate the childs development level at present along with the length of the ZPD. It is important that the child values and makes use of the help that is offered. The child needs to be capable to benefit from the give-and-take conversations with others (Bruner, 1983).In Vygotskys theory language plays a major part in the learning and development process. A child is encouraged to think in new ways and gain a new cognitive tool to make sense of the world. Language is used to solve problems, overcome impulsive action and plan a effect before trying it to control behaviour (Jones, 1995). It is also used for a social purpose, so children can obtain help of peers and solve problems. In this process of development the child starts to practice the same forms of behaviour that other formerly practices with respect to the child however this behaviour is only silent in a social context.V ygotsky has had a great influence on Bruners theory with the introduction of scaffolding and spiral curriculum. scaffold is an effective outline that accesses the ZPD. Scaffolding involved the teacher providing the children the opportunity to build on their incumbent skills and knowledge. This involves the teacher engaging the children and simplifying instructions so they are easily understood.Scaffolding has been used in every subject to support learning especially when introducing new topics. In Literacy the children had to write a story ending. Work was set according to their ability, through the spiral curriculum. The child expressed his ideas and the teaching participator wrote them on a dry white board ready for the child to copy onto paper. The child was assisted by questions directing her to revisit the story and think about the ending. However this can be a problem as the teacher may offer too much help which may lead to the child expecting help every time and not think ing on their own.Also when observing an ICT lesson, the teacher guided the child through the stages of what needs to be done. The children were then left to complete the task independently. The guidance given relates to Vygotskys approach and the creativity and constructivism is enhanced by Piaget.I observed a year two class in mathematics they were starting a new topic on difference. The objective of the lesson was to work out the missing number in a sum. To explain this, cubes were used to visually represent numbers so they are easily understood. Both the addition and subtraction methods were shown. Many examples were given until the child fully understood and could work on their own initiative. The activity was then extended to using two digit numbers. The teacher adopted Vygotskys method of ZPD and found that most children had understood the word difference and how to work it out after a number of examples were shown.Unlike Piaget, who concentrated more on individual learning ra ther than providing adults with a role to help children learn, whereas Vygotsky believed that both other adults and culture play a major part in the development of a childs cognitive ability (Schaffer, 2004, p.90). However Vygotsky constantly mentions how children develop with guidance and help from other adults but does not state how they individually develop (Schaffer 2004, p.215). He failed to recognise how children are motivated to learn individually. Vygotsky focussed more on co-operative learning and little attention was given to individual learning.Vygotsky never took development changes of a child into account. He viewed the child in the same way at the age of two and at the age of twelve. Also the ZPD has been critically analysed by researchers. They have found that teachers have control over a childs thinking as they can ask questions that require certain answer which limits their learning. This kind of questioning is only suitable for children who are achieving below aver age. A teacher has to be extremely talented to successfully apply the ZPD and guide the children through a task instead of telling them what to do. However the ZPD cannot be applied to every child within a class as the teacher does not have sufficient amount of time to do so (Schaffer 2004, p.217).A final criticism is that Vygotsky failed to take the emotional aspects of a child into account. He did not recognise what happens when a child cannot complete a task or gets something wrong. If a child continuously gets something wrong, does the child lose motivation or continue with the task and hope to succeed? A child goes through many forms of emotion when they are hitless in a task or get something wrong however this has not been mentioned anywhere within Vygotskys theory. Likewise Piaget also failed to take the emotions of a child into account (Schaffer, 2004, p.218).Vygotskys behaviour is particularly relevant to those who are concerned with the use of language as it can be crucia l and be with the action. Both Vygotsky and Piaget looked at preschool children in problem solving situations. Piaget believed that the self directed behaviour is egocentric and has a minimum relevance to a childs cognitive growth however Vygotsky referred to it as private speech. Vygotsky believed that private speech grows through interactions with adults they begin to use parents instructions to direct their own behaviour (Slrn B. Kristinsdttir, 2008).Both Piaget and Vygotsky had a conflict when explaining that development theories should not be taught until the children are at the right development stage. Piaget believed that the children are the most important aspect of cognitive development which conflicted with Vygotskys zone of proximal development. However Vygotsky argued that the social environment can be of great help when it comes to cognitive development of the child. The social environment can help children adapt to new situations with ease. Both theorists had the same aim of finding out children think of ideas and translate them into speech.Piaget discovered that children like to explore for themselves the way the world works and what it has to offer however Vygotsky wrote in Thought and Language that human mental activity is the result of learning. This led to Vygotsky believing that acquisition of language has the biggest influence on a childs life.Piaget had a huge emphasis on universal cognitive change and Vygotskys theory expected to have variable development depending on the cultural experiences a child has had. Piagets theory had an emphasis on the natural line whereas Vygotsky like the cultural line of development (Gallagher, 1999).

Indias Foreign Exchange System: An Analysis

Indias abroad transform System An AnalysisCHAPTER-2 literature REVIEW2.1 IntroductionIt is a fact that the currencies of distinguishable countries gestate various abide bys that is establish upon their actual sparing and m iodintary strength. It is from this difference that the genesis of exotic substitution occurs. strange change oer flush toilet be termed as the act of matching the dispa say appraises of the goods and ope valuate that is involved in the initiation(prenominal) operation work summons in put up to build the exact treasure that is to be change overred amid the parties of an international trade movement in monetary terms. unlike flip as an action mechanism had started the daylight civilization and independent principalities got constituted in the world. be slopes in those days it was a fount of exchanging cling to in the form of transfer of goods and services of identical value that is commonly identified with barter system. Moreo ver the proceeding were through with(p) on a one-to-one basis, and the terms and conditions were intractable by the parties entering into such(prenominal)(prenominal) legal proceeding. There was no universal system or rule that pay offd these proceeding. In that way un connected modify and international monetary system is a modern day trend that gained an institutional form in the get-go half of the twentieth century and has been create since then.2.2 Foreign change tally to planetary Monetary Fund (IMF), Foreign Exchange is defined as different forms of monetary instruments like impertinent up-to-dateness notes, deposits held in exotic cants, debt obligations of exotic banks and international government activitys, monetary amber and Special Drawing Rights (SDR) that be resorted to make payments in lieu of business minutes that is done by cardinal business entities or differentwise, of nations that allow currencies having different inherent monetary value (www.imf.org).Leading economist Lipsey Richard G.,1993 has mentioned that the exotic flip-flop relationss be basically a form of assignable instrument that argon resorted to deliver the appeal of goods and services that form a part of trading minutes and sepa scorewise, between business and public entities of nations of the world(prenominal) deliverance.Sarno, Taylor and Frankel, 2003 gives the definition of external reciprocation as denoting the act of purchase and deepen of currencies of different economies that is performed over the counter for various purposes that includes international payments and deliverance of cost of various business proceeding, where the value is usually measured by tallying the value of the currencies involved in the contrasted sub transaction with that of the value of U.S. Dollar. gibe to Clark and Ghosh 2004, Foreign Exchange denotes transactions in international silver i.e. currencies of different economies. In such transactions t he value of a currency of one country is tallied and traded with similar value of the currency of the country in order to interchange the cost of a business transaction or public monetary transfer that is taking place between two entities of these economies.2.2.1 Foreign Exchange TransactionsTransactions in unlike telephone exchange are done with various types and various modes between different countries of the world.According to information mentioned in the Reuters Financial Training Series, 1999,TOD Transactions, TOM Transactions, patronage wanders, Spot Rates, Forward Rates, Margin Trading and Buy / Sell on Fixed Rates foreign exchange transaction methods are almost of the commonly used methods that are widely used by globular managers for their foreign exchange transaction activities.2.2.1.1 TOD trading operations TOD Operations are foreign exchange transaction methods where the trader uses the exchange ordinate of the day on which the foreign exchange transaction o rder is to be executed. In other words TOP operations are commonly used in intra-day foreign exchange transactions. As a exit they are commonly resorted to by speculators in foreign exchange transactions and those who general speculate on the sends of different foreign exchange grocerys of the globe.2.2.1.2 TOM OperationsIn this type of transactions the transaction process carried forward to the next day kind of of it organism an intra-day trading. TOM transactions swan is fixed on the day the transaction is signed, but the regularize of exchange is agreed upon to be that of the next day.2.2.1.3 SPOTTransactionsSPOT Transactions can be compared with TOM transactions because here withal the exchange enumerate is fixed at a value that prevails over the exchange rate of intra-day trading of shares. But SPOT transactions have been separated as a different category because unlike TOM transactions, SPOT transactions compacts are executed on the third day afterwardwards the wri te of apprehension between the Bank and the client.2.2.1.4 Forward Contract Forward contracts are those exchange rate contracts where the currency conversion exchange rate savvy is decided at a certain rate at a meter that is well up before the date of execution of the exchange contract. In that way they are similar to TOM transactions. The only differ from them in the fact that these transactions are make for a long term i.e. generally for one year, and the parties involved in making this foreign exchange transaction deposit five pct of the contract value with the bank involved in facilitating the transaction at the time of executing the contract which is then returned to the client after execution of the exchange transaction. The need for depositing this center is to secure the transaction against any loss imputable to merchandise fluctuations.2.2.1.5 alternate The greatest advantage of SWAP transactions is that the clients involved in the foreign exchange get prior informa tion around the exchange rate of the currencies that are part of the transaction. In this type of transaction the bank first buys the bar of transaction form the client and resells it to the client after a few days after disclosing the exchange rate of the currencies involved in the transaction process. SWAP transactions are much sought after by traders because here they get to know beforehand the exchange rate of the currencies involved in the transaction process that helps them in avoiding fluctuations in mart rate and gives them the advantage of find out the costs of goods, the nature of the currency food foodstuff notwithstanding. .2.2.1.6 MarginTradingThe sexual conquest element of Margin trading is that any trader can favor for SPOT trading round the clock by going through the margin trading mode. The other key element of margin trading is that the traders can make deals with a minimal spread for a immense amount of funds by projecting fraction of the needed amount. In that way it is a unique form of world(a) pecuniary transaction where the threshold value that can be transacted through the margin trading mode is $ 100000 with bigger deals being seven-folds of $ 100000. But in order to deal in margin trading the trader has to make a security deposit of five recent of the contract value that has to be replenished from time to time in order to maintain the amount from which the verisimilar losses from margin trading transactions are accommodated.2.2.1.7 Buying/ sell on Fixed Rate Order This is a mutual agreement between the buyer and seller of foreign exchange. N two its rate nor its other terms and conditions are based upon actual conditions. Rather the deal is based keeping the mutual profitability of the buyer and seller intact where some(a)(a)(prenominal) of them get their desired amount.2.3 Global Foreign Exchange MarketAccording to the table depicting the Triennial Bank Survey of Foreign Exchange and Derivatives Market performivity d one by Bank for International gag laws (BIS)2007, as shown below the international foreign exchange merchandise has an average casual turnover of over $ 2 trillion, which is an increase of roughly forty percent in terms of loudnesss . This rise in foreign exchange transactions it is observed has been delinquent to rise in the the great unwashed of trading in Spot and Forward marts. This is indicative towards increase in volatility of foreign exchange markets virtually the world. (www.bis.org).Global Foreign Exchange Market disturbanceDaily averages in April, (in billions $)Year198919921995199820012004Spot Transactions317394494568387621Outright forrader275897128131208Swaps in Foreign Exchange one hundred ninety324546734656944Gaps in Reporting (Estimated)5644536026107Total Turnover (Traditional)5908201,1901,4901,2001,880Memo Turnover (At April 2004 Exchange Rates)6508401,1201,5901,3801,880(BIS Triennial underlying Bank Survey, 2004)As observed by Jacque Laurent L.1996, Stu dies in foreign exchange point to the fact that the volume involved in foreign exchange transactions in the tally markets around the globe has the potential to dissemble the boilers suit functioning of the global pecuniary system due to the authoritative assays that are part and parcel of the foreign exchange transaction system. to the highest degree of the transactions occur in the major markets of the world with the London Exchange followed by New York and Tokyo Stock Exchange accounting for over sixty percent of the foreign exchange transactions done around the globe. Among these transactions the braggyst share is carried out by banks and fiscal institutions followed by other business transactions i.e. exchange of value for goods and services as well as dealers involved in securities and financial market transactions. According to the studies by Levi Maurice D., 2005, in foreign exchange transactions most of the transactions continue in the cutaneous senses market in th e realm of OTC derived function contracts. This is followed by hedging and forward contracts that are done in large numbers. The central banks of different countries of the world and the financial institutions operating in multiple markets are the main players that operate in the foreign exchange market and provide the risk exchange oblige mechanism to the players of the exchange market and the system where around $ 3 trillion amount of money is transacted in 300000 exchanges located around the globe. The largest amount of transactions takes place in the spot rate and that too in the liquidity market. The quotation on price in these markets sometimes r from each onees to around two thousand times in a private day with the maximum quotations being done in Dollar and Deutschemark with the rates fluctuating every two to one-third minutes with the volume of transaction for a dealer in foreign exchange i.e. both individual and companies going to the range of $ 500 million in normal times. In recent years the derivative market is to a fault gaining popularity in OTC dealings with regards to the foreign exchange market.2.4 Global Foreign Exchange Market Management RisksAccording to the researcher Kim S. H., 2005, Foreign exchange transactions are identified by their connection with some financial transactions occurring in some overseas market or markets. But this interconnectivity does not affect the inherent value of the currency of the country which is unconquerable by the economic strength of that country. This means that the inherent value of each currency of the world is different and unequal. So when the need arises to exchange the value of some goods or service between countries engaged in such activity it be go downs imperative to exchange the exact value of goods and services. Considering the complexity and volume of such trading and exchange activity occurring in the global market between countries it is but natural that the currencies of individual c ountries is subject to continual accommodation of value with the currency with which its value has to be exchanged. This gives rise to the importance of foreign exchange transactions as a separate area of guide and thereby needs much focus for its understanding (Frenkel , Hommel and Rudolf , 2005). In growth to this it is to be completed that with the growing pace globalization and integrating of global economic order there has been a awful increase in international business transactions and closer integration of economic systems of countries around the world oddly between the members of WTO, that has led to the increase in economic transactions and consequent activity in international foreign currency exchange system (Adams, Mathieson and Schinasi, 1998). Added to this is the fact that the exchange value of currencies in the transactions is not determined by the various(prenominal) countries but by the interplay of value of the currencies engaged in an international foreign exchange transaction and the overall value of each currency in the transaction prevailing at that time. In fact each country in the global economic order would want to determine the value of its currency to its maximum advantage, which was assertable a few years ago in when the countries used to determine the value of their currency according to the existing value of their economy. The individual countries gutter the early nineties used to follow a policy of total or partial simplicity over the exchange value of their currency in the global market. At the similar time there similarly were a group of countries that followed the policy or system in determining the exchange value of their currency i.e. left it to the interplay of global economic activity where the value was determined by its economic operation. The currencies of countries that provide full or partial amount of control in the international exchange value of its currency are known to follow a Fixed Rate whereas th e currencies of countries that allow its currency to seek its inherent value through its performance in the global economic system are termed as next the Floating Rate of foreign exchange conversion mechanism. Though logically both the type of mechanism of foreign exchange face the resolution of exchange rate fluctuations and consequent volatility in rate it is the currencies having a floating rate that are continually affected by the fluctuations in exchange rate in the global market when in the instance of currencies with a fixed rate it is to a greater extent of a controlled and regulated procedure (Chorafas Dimitris N., 1992).2.5 Foreign Exchange Risks Prevailing in the Global MarketRisks colligate to the exchange rate of a currency in the global market as has been mentioned, occurs due to the interplay of inherent value of each currency of the respective countries that are part of the global financial mechanism. Risks tie in to foreign exchange come into picture and are in any case requisite in this world marching towards increased interaction due to globalization. The risks impart occur due to business interaction and consequent exchange of value for goods and services.According to Kodres LauraE., 1996, the risks related to foreign exchange occur when there is increased interaction between the currency of a country with that of other countries in the international market and that too if the currency has a floating exchange rate. In that case the value of the currency is continually affected by its business and financial performance. This relation with other currencies in the market affects it during the time when the need arises to exchange it with another currency for firmness of purpose of financial transaction in some business or financial purposes and gives rise to various types of risks. The prominent risks associated during this detail are Herstatt Risk, and Liquidity Risk.2.5.1 Herstatt RiskHerstatt risk is a risk that is named after a German Bank that got liquidated by the German Government in the seventies of the last century and make to return all the claims accruing to its customers. This is because its creditworthiness was affected and it could not pay the settlement claims to its customers and also on behalf of its customers to their clients. It is basically connected to the time aspect of foreign exchange value claim settlements in which the foreign exchange transactions do not get realized as the bank loses its ability to maintain the transaction in the interpose period due to some causes. In the particular case the German bank failed to honour the financial settlement claims of its clients to their counter parties that were to be nonrecreational in values of U.S Dollars. The main issues that arose were regarding quantifying the amount to be delivered and the time of the transaction process due to the two countries financial systems being located and works according to different or separate time zones. This case has established a phenomenon in foreign exchange market where there whitethorn erupt situations in which the working hours of banks located in different time zones may never match with each other leading to foreign exchange settlement transactions getting affected during the mismatch of the two banks closing and opening time. In fact the Alsopp Report that studied this phenomenon in detail give tongue to that though the foreign exchange transactions are made in pen and paper on a single day the actual transfer of value takes place within three to four days. And with the exchange value of currencies operating in the international market always remaining in a state of flux they either get jacked up or devalued. In either case it affects the article of transactions that was decided on an intra-day rate, as the value of both the currencies in the international market has changed during these days.2.5.2 Risks related to LiquidityThere can arrange up different problems relate d to the banking systems operations and dynamics i.e. in both technical and management systems as well as inability in terms of volume of available liquidity strength or in mismatch in tallying of time etc that can affect the capacity of banks to honour foreign exchange transactions in terms of transfer of liquidity. These types of risks are being commonly witnessed in newly emerging economies that are being unable to cope with the sudden surge in volume of global business transactions thereby leading to exchange rate settlement and payment delays, outstanding payments and dishonouring of financial commitments in the exchange rate transaction market.2.5.3 Financial RepercussionsAccording to the Studies in foreign exchange related risks by Dumas and Solnik, 1995 aver that risk related to transactions in foreign exchange have increased with globalization and the rise of global economic integration process with the countries getting affected in relation to the volume of their transacti ons in the global financial and business marketplace. This is because the market is now more oriented towards market value driven convertibility of currencies that is influenced by the global financial movements and transactions, and any independent transaction especially of transnational and multinational companies will automatically affect other transactions happening in the global financial marketplace (Klopfenstein G.,1997).However, according to another study by Gallati Reto R., 2003, these multinational and transnational companies are simultaneously being affected by the fluctuations in exchange rate of different currencies of the global market that is exposing their business operations in different global markets to exchange rate related risks especially due to difference in Spot and Forward rates and the inevitable fluctuations (Choi , 2003) that give rise to foreign exchange settlement related problems.2.5.4 Remedies to Foreign Exchange Settlement RisksAs there risks that h ave cropped up in foreign exchange transactions due to increase in volume and frequency of transactions mainly as a result of globalization so, also there have come up remedies to minimise the risk related to adverse conditions in foreign exchange transactions.The Bank for International Settlements (BIS) in one of its studies in 1999 has said that settlement of claims is the most overabundant risk that is related to foreign exchange transactions, especially the speed with which these transactions are materialized and the roadblocks that they may face in the process due to tremendous increase in volume of foreign exchange transactions that cannot be cleared in expected times. The solution to these risks according to the study is to simultaneously clear transactions on either side i.e. for both the parties side so that they simultaneously give and receive payments at the agreed rate of exchange. This would solve the problem of extended time of actual payment when the rate of exchange fluctuates, thereby creating problems for both the parties. This arrangement is related to deals being processed simultaneously, which requires the concurrence and common cause of both the parties. This is because the party that is expecting a ascent in value of its currency may not agree to such a proposal. In that case there should be some fair play or arrangement that would make it mandatory for both the parties to settle their intra-day payments on that day itself so that there is no scope left for shot by them. According to the study, such arrangements have been made in the States and Europe where systems like Fedwire and Trans- European Automated Real-Time Gross Settlement Express Transfer (TARGET) have been established. Fedwire facilitates payments in foreign exchange transactions under the mode of Real Time Gross Settlements (RTGS)and TARGET facilitates intra-day transfer of foreign exchange between parties of member countries of Europe on the same day itself.But, for s imultaneous release of funds by both the parties and the intra-day settlement of claims to succeed it is imperative that the member countries of the global economic system should come together have concurrence on these issues. This is because all said and done the foreign exchange transaction related rules and laws are still governed by the respective countries. And most of these countries are reluctant to make any headroom in linking their currency system to the global currency system for immediate disposal of foreign exchange transactions for fear that such a move would expose their currency end financial system to the pestilent effects of risks and volatility of global foreign exchange system (Hagelin and Pramborg, 2004).At the level of international trading corporations there has been initiated some steps whereby they have formed a private arrangement known as host of Twenty. They are a group of twenty internationally acclaimed global unclutter banks who have formed an syst em called the Global Clearing Bank that acts as a connection between the payment systems of different countries and verifies international foreign exchange transactions in order to simultaneously satisfy both the parties regarding authenticity of the process of transaction. The thing is that this system puts a high amount of strain on the financial and foreign exchange system as well as reserves of individual countries along with requiring them to bring about some amount of commonality between the financial rules and regulations of individual countries which is easier said than done. All the same the establishment of Bilateral Netting System and twelve-sided Netting Systems as well as of Exchange Clearing support (ECHO) are trying to facilitate foreign exchange transactions and minimize the inherent risks involved (McDonough ,1996).2.6 Indian Foreign Exchange System2.6.1 diachronic BackgroundThe historical background of foreign exchange system in India was a saga of excess contro l and monitoring with even minor transactions being made to undergo the rigorous scrutiny of concerned government authorities to avoid any risks associated with such transactions and save the remarkable foreign exchange reserves from being frittered away in some transactions considered un outstanding or anti-national by the government. The Foreign Exchange enactment Act (FERA) that was enacted in 1947 and made more stringent in 1973 was the form of the prevailing sentiment of the governments of those days, which was to completely regulate and control all the foreign exchange transactions and protect the foreign currency reserves. (Mehta, 1985)All these changed in the nineties of the last century with the opening up of Indian economy in 1991 in keeping with the recommendations of the High Level Committee on Balance of Payments set up under the chairmanship of Dr C. Rangarajan by the Ministry of Finance, Government of India and succeeding entry of India into World Trade Organizati on (WTO) in 1994. This was preceded by the liberating of original account transactions and establishing full convertibility of current account transactions in 1993. In 1994 also the Government of India accepted Article VIII of concord of the International Monetary Fund that established the system of current account convertibility and the exchange value of rupee came to be determined according to the market rates with only the convertibility of capital account being under the control of the government (Krueger,2002) as the Tarapore Committee on Capital Account Convertibility of 1997 (Panagariya A., 2008) suggested the government to keep adequate safeguards before allowing the convertibility of capital account to be determined according to the market forces as there was need to consolidate the financial system and have an accepted inflation target before such a venture.The Tarapore Committee also suggested that the legal framework governing the foreign exchange transaction system in India also needs to be modernized before going for total convertibility of the capital account due to which the Government repealed the FERA Act of 1973 and promulgated the Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA) in 2000.This new act did away with the system of regulation and control and established a system of facilitation and management of foreign exchange transactions thereby promoting all the activities related to foreign exchange transactions. The most important thing that was done by FEMA was to recognize violations or mistakes in foreign exchange transactions as a civil offence sort of of a criminal offence as was done by FERA. FEMA also shifted the responsibility of proving the violation or mistake in foreign exchange transaction and related rules from the prosecutor to the prosecuted. And if the prosecuted was proved guilty he or she was to pay only monetary fine or compensation instead of being jailed as was the earlier provision under FERA. FEMA also simplified many of t he rules and notified specific time frames for delivering judgments related to violations of foreign exchange rules and regulations and provide rules for establishing special tribunals and forums to deal with such cases. The compounding rules were also made less stringent and all matters related to compounding rules were notified to be dealt by Reserve Bank of India (RBI) instead of the previously assigned Enforcement Directorate. RBI was made the designated Compounding Authority in all related matters. Only the cases involving hawala transactions were left from its purviewAs per Mecklal and Chand

Importance of Chemical Bonding | Essay

Importance of Chemical allianceing EssayGeorge chocolate-brownChemical confederations are either ionic or covalent. When a admixture is present the bond is ionic as an negatron is given from the go up to the non-metal, so the two ions are attracted to on the whole(prenominal) other. When a bond is between two non-metals then it is covalent meaning that in the outer(a) electron shells of the two pinpoints bonded electrons share electron to complete their outer electron shell.When two atoms bonded unneurotic are non the same, the electrons pass on not be shared equally as each atom will be positively or negatively charged in relation to each other. This value is peakd as the balance of the negativeness of each atom present. The electronegativity of an atom is the potential for the atom to attract shared electrons towards itself. The difference in electronegativity between ionic bonds is greater than that of polar covalent bonds and greater still of non-polar covalent bond. An poser of a non-polar covalent bond is H-I as the difference in electronegativity isnt very high. An precedent of a polar covalent bond is H-Cl as the difference in electronegativity is higher than 0.5 and lower than 1.7 and an moral of an ionic bond would be Na-Cl as the difference in electronegativity is above 1.7.In aim 1 it eject be observed how the electrons are shared in ionic and covalent bonds. This explains the high difference in the resultant electronegativity between ionic and covalent bonds. Metal, as an ion, donates an electron making it positively charged and a non-metal, as an ion, gains an electron making it more negatively charged meaning the attraction between ionic bonds is greater than that of covalent bonds. noodle bonded essences are more polar than covalent bonded substances thus a better issue. NaCl has a much high boiling point (around 1413c) than for example HCl (around -85c)Sodium Chloride, better k todayn as table salt, is an example of an Ionic bonded substance overdue to the high difference in electronegativity. Sodium and centiliter as elements are very reactive and thus poisonous to the merciful body in large quantities if uncontrolled. So the fact that sodium and chloride are ionically bonded abets to control the concentration of sodium and chlorine in the body as it can single be broken down when it needs to be in the liver. Sodium and chlorine is needed In low concentrations for mainstay cell bleeds in spirit cells for maintaining the resting potential of nerve axon cells which is -70 mV (Hall et al., two hundred9) maintained by the sodium potassium pump. It is required for the nerve cells in the human body to function. Its the reason for why you can feel or can react to stimuli.A blood cell is forever and a day non polar, where the bonds between atoms in the molecule are non-polar an example of this would be H-I. pee is an example of a polar covalent bond as it consists of polar covalent bonds H- O and the molecule is asymmetrical. This means that pissing system is a good solvent allowing it to transport sugars and salts around the body, in blood, as they can be easy dissolved in an aqueous solvent such as water. In solve 2 you can construe the relative charge of the molecule in water. CCl4 is example of a molecule of which its atoms are polar bonded together but due to the symmetry of the molecule observed in figure 2 the polarity of the molecules cancels itself out, and it acts as if its non-polar in intermolecular interactionsThe chroma between intermolecular bonds is a lot weaker than the strength of intramolecular bonds and the weakest nisus of intermolecular bond is a bond that uses van der Waals forces or an fast induced-dipole bond. These are observed when a come outby non-polar molecules experiencing an instant(prenominal) dipole, due to the ergodic nature of electron misdirects oscillating on molecules, which induces a dipole of some other molecule, it may cause a ripple effect inducing dipoles on nearby non-polar molecules. Larger molecules have a larger electron cloud which means the induced and potential electronegativity of instantaneous dipoles would be stronger. wagon train der Waals forces is the attraction that occurs between all molecules polar or non-polar, but is the only source of intermolecular attraction between non-polar molecules. Lower boiling points will be observed of substances of similar elements that are polar, dipole-dipole bonds or eventide stronger heat content(dipole-dipole) bonds, than that of non-polar Van der Waals force bonds, as they are much stronger so it requires more energy(heat) to interrupt them. Figure 3 is an example of an induced dipole bond from an instantaneous dipole.Hydrogen bonding (an example of a strong dipole-dipole bond) is another example of an intermolecular. Standard hydrogen bonding is an intermolecular bond where a hydrogen from one molecule is attached to one of the most electronegative elements oxygen, northward or fluorine of another molecule. Figure 4 shows a plot of a hydrogen bond between two water molecules. These bonds help to keep the water molecules together so it requires more energy for the substance to change state from liquid into a gas. It to a fault means when water is a solid ( looking glass) it is less dense than when it is a liquid, which is unusual as usually substances tend to expand when they heat up. Heat is a measure of energizing energy of a substance, so when substances, molecules or atoms, has more kinetic energy it is more fluid, less packed together (less dense). You can see in figure 4 that each oxygen atom is bonded from a combination of hydrogen (intermolecular) and covalent (intramolecular) bonds to 4 oxygen atoms. in that respect is a lot of free space around these atoms when they are structurally bonded this way, so this is why ice is less dense than water. The structural function of ice is important for all seaso nal marine life and some shoot organisms as it allows ice to float.An example of a more complex intermolecular bond is ionic hydrogen bonding. Potential uses is discussed in the word BIOPHYISCAL (Kaledhonkar et al., 2013). The term states Standard hydrogen bonds are of great importance for protein structure and function but Ionic hydrogen bonds often are significantly stronger than standard hydrogen bonds and exhibit unique properties which allows them to be used in protein plica (polypeptides), modification in the golgi apparatus, enzyme active transport centres and the formation of membranes, processes that are all critical for life. Ionic hydrogen bonding is explained further in an article in chem. rev. (Meot-Ner (Mautner), 2005). The article states that ionic hydrogen bonds (IHBs) that form between ions and molecules with bonds strengths of 5-35 kcal/mol, up to a third of the strength of covalent bonds. Ionic hydrogen bonds are believed to be the strongest intermolecular bon d but still only up to a third the strength of a covalent bond. So even the strongest intermolecular bonds are weaker than intramolecular bonds.Word Count 1058Referencesbbc.co.uk, (2014).BBC Higher Bitesize Chemistry Bonding, structures and properties Revision, Page2. online procurable at http//www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/higher/chemistry/energy/bsp/revision/2/ Accessed 2 Dec. 2014.Chemprofessor.com, (2014).Intermolecular Attractions or van der Waals Forces. online Available at http//www.chemprofessor.com/imf.htm Accessed 2 Dec. 2014.Hall, A., Hickman, G., Howarth, S., Middlewick, S., Owens, N., Reiss, M., Scott, A. and Wilberforce, N. (2009).Salter-Nuffield Advanced biological science A2 Student Book. capital of the United Kingdom Edexcel Pearson, p.201.Kaledhonkar, S., Hara, M., Stalcup, T., Xie, A. and Hoff, W. (2013). Strong Ionic Hydrogen Bonding Causes a Spectral Isotope Effect in Photoactive Yellow Protein.Biophysical Journal, 105(11), pp.2577-2585.Meot-Ner (Mautner), M. (200 5). The Ionic Hydrogen Bond.Chem. Rev., 105(1), pp.213-284.Physicsofmatter.com, (1998).Hydrogen Bond Disorder in water ice Structures. online Available at http//www.physicsofmatter.com/NotTheBook/Talks/Ice/Ice.html Accessed 2 Dec. 2014.Page 1 of 7Soil Water contamination wheal Jane consequentSoil Water Contamination Wheal Jane IncidentThe Wheal Jane incident was a significant exploit water emanation event. The incident occurred in 1992, shortly after the mine closure. This report provides a brief description of the mine, the incident itself and the resulting aftermath.Wheal Jane exploit is located near the village of Chacewater, in Cornwall. The mine itself was formed in 1861, after the merging of five smaller mines. The oldest mine workings from the area were thought to ascertain back as far as the 1740s (Cornwall Calling, 2017). The mine had worked many mineral lodes over its life metre, producing tin, copper, and silver-lead (Cornwall in Focus, 2017). In the years leadi ng up to its closure, the mine was primarily extracting cassiterite, the main source ore of tin, but older workings also produced pyrite and arsenopyrite, with the modern development drives taking the mine to 450 meters below surface level (University of Exeter, 2002).The mines of the Gwennap parish were all interconnected, with Wheal Jane connected to the neighbouring, working mine pile Wellington, and to the abandoned workings of United mines. Wheal Jane was an extremely wet mine, requiring dewatering measures in the region of 60,000 m day-1 in the winter months. The wield water was highly acidic, owing to the dissolved metals from the sulphide mineral deposits. Approximately half of pumped water was tough before existence finishd into the Carnon river (Bowen, Dussek, Hamilton, 1998). Wheal Jane Mine had been working, on and off, from this time until its eventual closure in 1991 due to financial difficulties, primarily relating to the low price of tin, following the Interna tional Tin concord in 1985. Much of the mines infrastructure and equipment was sold off at the time of its closure, with the mines operational dewatering systems being turned off after a brass activity grant subsidising the pumping costs was withdrawn (University of Exeter, 2002).After the mine closure, and the cessation of the government grant, the operational dewatering pumps were switched off, leaving only the tailings dam pumps remaining. With the dewatering measures stopped, the water level flush and learned the expansive voids underground, with the sulphide mineral bearing rock now being leached by the rising ground water. The NRA (National Rivers Authority, now part of the surroundings Agency) was concerned of the potential of Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) into the Carnon river and commissioned a survey to determine the potential impact of a mine water discharge, and its likely discharge points and timing. The investigation proved difficult to predict due to the un cognise v olume of connected, un-surveyed mine workings which would also need to fill before release (Bowen, Dussek, Hamilton, 1998). The NRA continued to monitor the water levels and water theatrical role without the year.On November 17th 1991 the mine water levels reached 14.5 m AOD, and a mine water discharge event occurred through Janes adit. The water treatment lagoon onsite was quick overwhelmed by a flow of approximately 5,000 m per day of AMD at a pH of 2.8 (Bowen, Dussek, Hamilton, 1998). The NRA had contingency plans in status and immediately reacted by adding lime at the head of the adit to upraise the pH and precipitate the metals from the mine water. A plug was constructed near the admittance of Janes adit and the water pumped out into the tailings dam (University of Exeter, 2002).On January quaternary 1992 a technical issue meant that the pumps to the tailings dam were stopped. The mine water levels quickly rose by an estimated 4 meters. The mine water built up and, on January 13th 1992, discharged through the Nangiles adit, which was the second lowest known discharge location after Janes adit. This released an estimated 50,000 m of AMD (pH of 3.1) into the Carnon river over a close of 24 hours, flowing through the Restonguet Creek, Carrick Roads and into the Fal estuary (Bowen, Dussek, Hamilton, 1998).The contaminated water created a highly visual pollution event, as oxidation caused the iron rich water to turn a yellow-brown ochre colour, drawing general media attention and causing much alarm to the community ( CLAIRE, 2004).The mine water also contained considerable concentrations of heavy metals, most significantly being the presence of over 600 parts per billion Cadmium (University of Exeter, 2002).Following the discharge, naked as a jaybird pumps were installed by the owners to pump water from the adit directly into the tailings dam as a short-term issue.Monitoring after the incident proved that the make of the mine water discharge pr oved to be short-term only, with the NRA stating that There appears to have been no major adverse effects from the incident on the biota of the estuary. (National Rivers Authority, 1995). However, it was clear after the event that the mine water could not be left unchecked, and thus a water treatment solution was proposed.The NRA proposed both an active and passive treatment system. In 1994 a pilot passive treatment plant (PPTP) was constructed, as a research manner for potential long-term treatment options. An active treatment plant was constructed in 2000.The PPTP contains three different treatment flows, all containing aerobic reed beds for removal of Iron and Arsenic, an anaerobic cell for removal of zinc, copper, cadmium and iron by bacterial reduction, and an aerobic rock filter which removes manganese through issue of algae (University of Exeter, 2002). The three streams differ however in the pre-treatment. One stream is first treated with lime to raise the pH, the secon d is first passed through an anoxic limestone drain, and the third stream involves no pre-treatment at all ( CLAIRE, 2004). A report into the performance of the PPTP found that it offered inconsistent performance, and water discharge commonly exceeded the permitted water quality guidelines. The PPTP was also only processing 0.6 l/s of contaminated water, The active treatment plant took over from the PPTP in 2000. The process involves the addition of lime to increase the pH, and flocculant to precipitate out the metals in solution. The metal precipitates form a sludge, which is sent to a hold tank, and onto the tailings dam. The treated mine water is discharged out into the Carnon river. This system treats an average of 200 l/s, at a metal removal efficiency of 99.2% ( CLAIRE, 2004).Whilst there have not been any significant long-term environmental impacts from the incident, it serves as a stark reminder of the potential environmental mishap that can come from mining activities, par ticularly from historical mines which were not dependant to the same environmental regulations that are in place today.ReferencesCLAIRE. (2004). Mine Water Treatment at Wheal Jane Tin Mine, Cornwall. CLAIRE (Contaminated dry land Applications in Real Environments), 1-4.BBC. (2014, June 3). Pumping the polluted water from mines. Retrieved from BBC News http//www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-26573994Bowen, G. G., Dussek, C., Hamilton, R. (1998). taint resulting from the abandonment and subsequent flooding of Wheal Jane Mine in Cornwall, UK. London Geological Society.Cornwall Calling. (2017). Retrieved from Cornwall Calling http//www.cornwall-calling.co.uk/mines/carnon-valley/wheal-jane.htmCornwall in Focus. (2017). Cornwall in Focus. Retrieved from http//www.cornwallinfocus.co.uk/mining/whealjane.phpNational Rivers Authority. (1995). Wheal Jane Mine Water Study. Ashford Knight Pisold. Retrieved from Environment Data http//www.environmentdata.org/ trilby/repository/ealit2627/OBJ/20000 033.pdfUniversity of Exeter. (2002). The Wheal Jane Incident and water quality. Retrieved from Projects University of Exeter https//projects.exeter.ac.uk/geomincentre/estuary/Main/jane.htm